TEORI EKONOMI 2

EKONOMI PEMBANGUNAN

Pembangunan ekonomi adalah suatu proses kenaikan pendapatan total dan pendapatan perkapita dengan memperhitungkan adanya pertambahan penduduk dan disertai dengan perubahan fundamental dalam struktur ekonomi suatu negara dan pemerataan pendapatan bagi penduduk suatu negara.

Pembangunan ekonomi tak dapat lepas dari pertumbuhan ekonomi (economic growth); pembangunan ekonomi mendorong pertumbuhan ekonomi, dan sebaliknya, pertumbuhan ekonomi memperlancar proses pembangunan ekonomi.

Pada pembangunan ekonomi, masyarakat berperan sebagai pelaku utamanya, dan pemerintah menjadi pembimbing dan pendukung jalannya pembangunan ekonomi.

Menurut Sadono Sukirno (1996: 33), pertumbuhan dan pembangunan ekonomi memiliki definisi yang berbeda, yaitu pertumbuhan ekonomi ialah proses kenaikan output perkapita yang terus menerus dalam jangka panjang. Pertumbuhan ekonomi tersebut merupakan salah satu indikator keberhasilan pembangunan. Dengan demikian makin tingginya pertumbuhan ekonomi biasanya makin tinggi pula kesejahteraan masyarakat, meskipun terdapat indikator yang lain yaitu distribusi pendapatan.

Pembangunan ekonomi adalah proses perubahan menuju perbaikan yang dilakukan secara sadar dan terencana untuk meningkatkan taraf hidup masyarakat. Seiring berkembangnya zaman, pembangunan ekonomi mulai diartikan sebagi usaha untuk meningkatkan atau mempertahankan pendapatan per kapita dengan tetap memperlihatkan pertumbuhan penduduk.

Berdasarkan pengertian pembangunan ekonomi, terdapat tiga elemen sebagai berikut.

1.      Pembangunan sebagai suatu proses

Artinya, pembangunan adalah tahap yang harus dijalani setiap warga atau negara. Setiap negara harus mmenjalani tahap-tahap perkembangan untuk kondisi yang adil, makmur, dan sejahtera.

2.      Pembangunan sebagi suatu usaha untuk meningkatkan pendapatan per kapita

Merupakan tindakan aktif yang harus dilakukan oleh negara dalam peningkatan pendapatan per kapita, maka partisipasi oleh semua pihak negara harus baik, karena pendapatan per kapita merupakan cermin kebaikan kesejahteraan masyarakat.

3.      Peningkatan pendapatan per kapita berlangsung dalam jangka panjang

Perekonomian  dikatakan berkembang jika pendapatan per kapitanya meningkat. Maka dengan adanya peningkatan kegiatan ekonomi setiap tahunnya, pendapatan per kapita dapat tetap naik, walaupun terdapat gangguan yang sementara.

Dalam pembahasan ekonomi pembangunan ini saya akan membahas tiga point saja yaitu :

1.      Mengapa negara berkembang penting untuk melakukan ekonom i pembangunan ?

2.      Apa dampak dan manfaat dari ekonomi pembangunan ?

3.      Pembahasan atau ulasan terkait negara berkembang yang berada di kawasan ASEAN.

Mari kita bahas satu per satu.

1.      Mengapa negara berkembang penting untuk melakukan ekonomi pembangunan ?

Jawab :

Negara berkembang merupakan salah satu istilah umum yang digunakan untuk mendefinisikan suatu negara dengan tingkat kesejahteraan bertaraf rendah. Sayangnya, belum ada definisi paten mengenai negara berkembang yang diakui secara global. Negara berkembang adalah sebuah negara dengan rata-rata pendapatan yang rendah,infrastruktur yang relatif terbelakang, dan indeks perkembangan manusia yang kurangdibandingkan negara global. Indonesia merupakan salah satu negara berkembang yangtentunya memiliki permasalahan ekonomi, masalah perekonomian Indonesia akhir-akhir inisemakin meningkat, dan para ahli ekonomi kita malah semakin pesimis dengan programpemulihan ekonomi indonesia (Gombloh :1998). Kondisi perekonomian global yang rapuhdengan sistem finansialnya yang tidak berfungsi baik, menempatkan negara-negara berkembang pada posisi yang kian rentan.

Di dalam negara berkembang, tingkat pembangunannya bisa saja bervariasi. Bahkan, beberapa negara berkembang pun kini mulai berubah sedikit demi sedikit agar standar gaya hidup mereka menjadi layak dan cukup tinggi.

Yang menjadi pertanyaan disini mengapa negara berkembang harus melakukan pembangunan ekonomi ?,  singkat saja yaitu dengan melakukan pembangunan ekonomi maka suatu negara akan memiliki :

·         Taraf hidup yang tinggi

·         Menaikkan pendapatan perkapita

·         Mercerdaskan dan mensejahterahkan penduduknya

·         Masyarakat yang adil dan makmur

·         Dapat berubah menjadi negara maju

2.      Apa dampak dan manfaat dari ekonomi pembangunan ?

Jawab :

Dampak Positif dan Negatif Pembangunan Ekonomi

Pembangunan ekonomi yang berlangsung di suatu negara membawa dampak, baik positif maupun negatif.

Dampak Positif Pembangunan Ekonomi

·         Melalui pembangunan ekonomi, pelaksanaan kegiatan perekonomian akan berjalan lebih lancar dan mampu mempercepat proses pertumbuhan ekonomi.

·         Adanya pembangunan ekonomi dimungkinkan terciptanya lapangan pekerjaan yang dibutuhkan oleh masyarakat, dengan demikian akan mengurangi pengangguran.

·         Terciptanya lapangan pekerjaan akibat adanya pembangunan ekonomi secara langsung bisa memperbaiki tingkat pendapatan nasional.

·         Melalui pembangunan ekonomi dimungkinkan adanya perubahan struktur perekonomian dari struktur ekonomi agraris menjadi struktur ekonomi industri, sehingga kegiatan ekonomi yang dilaksanakan oleh negara akan semakin beragam dan dinamis.

·         Pembangunan ekonomi menuntut peningkatan kualitas SDM sehingga dalam hal ini, dimungkinkan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi akan berkembang dengan pesat. Dengan demikian, akan makin meningkatkan kesejahteraan masyarakat.

Dampak Negatif Pembangunan Ekonomi

·         Adanya pembangunan ekonomi yang tidak terencana dengan baik mengakibatkan adanya kerusakan lingkungan hidup.

·         Industrialisasi mengakibatkan berkurangnya lahan pertanian.

3.      Pembahasan atau ulasan terkait negara berkembang yang berada di kawasan ASEAN.

Uraian :

Indonesia

Saat ini ekonomi Indonesia telah cukup stabil. Pertumbuhan PDB Indonesia tahun 2004 dan 2005 melebihi 5% dan diperkirakan akan terus berlanjut. Namun, dampak pertumbuhan itu belum cukup besar dalam memengaruhi tingkat pengangguran, yaitu sebesar 9,75%. Perkiraan tahun 2006, sebanyak 17,8% masyarakat hidup di bawah garis kemiskinan, dan terdapat 49,0% masyarakat yang hidup dengan penghasilan kurang dari AS$ 2 per hari.

Meski kaya akan sumber daya alam dan manusia, Indonesia masih menghadapi masalah besar dalam bidang kemiskinan yang sebagian besar disebabkan oleh korupsi yang merajalela dalam pemerintahan.

Lembaga Transparency International menempatkan Indonesia sebagai peringkat ke-143 dari 180 negara dalam Indeks Persepsi Korupsi, yang dikeluarkannya pada tahun 2007.

Alasan mengapa Indonesia dikatakan negara berkembang :

1.      Sebagian besar penduduk (>70%) bekerja di sektor pertanian.

2.      Industrinya biasanya berlatarbelakang agraris, terutama memanfaatkan
hasil kehutanan, pertanian, dan perikanan (industri sektor pertama dan sektor kedua).

3.      Tenaga pertanian masih mengandalkan tenaga kerja manusia.

4.      Luas lahan garapan relatif sempit dengan teknologi yang sederhana sehingga
hasilnya tidak maksimal.

5.      Pendapatan per kapita rendah.

6.      Angka kelahiran dan kematian masih tinggi.

7.      Tingginya angka pengangguran karena besarnya jumlah penduduk dan
terbatasnya lapangan pekerjaan.

8.      Pendidikan formal tersebar secara tidak merata dengan kualitas yang buruk.

9.      Kelebihan jumlah penduduk yang menyebabkan tidak terjangkau atau tidak
meratanya pelayanan sosial.

10.  Kedudukan dan peran wanita sangat terbatas dan cenderung dipandang
sebagai kelas dua.

EXERCISE 4 of NOUN PHRASE

         In the following sentence supply the article (a, an, or the) if they are necessary. If no article is necessary, leave the space blank.

6.   ____big books on ____ table are for my history class.

      Answer : Big books on the table are for my history class. 

8.   My ____ car is four years old, and it still runs well.

      Answer : My car is four years old, and it still run well. 

EXERCISE 3 of NOUN PHRASE

        Choose the correct determiners in the following sentence.

6.  I do not want (these / this) water.

     Answer : I do not want this water

8.  A (few / little) people left early.

     Answer : A few people left early

 

THE NOUN PHRASE

4. THE NOUN PHRASE

The noun phrase is a group of worlds that ends with a noun. It can contain determine (the, a, this, etc), adjective, adverbs, and nouns. It CANNOT begin with a preposition. Remember that both subject and complements are generally noun phrase.

A.    COUNT AND NON-COUNT NOUNS

A count noun is one that can be counted.

Book --- one book, two book, three books, ….

Student --- one student, two student, three student, ….

Person --- one person, two person, three person, ….

 

A non-count noun is one that cannot be counted.

Milk --- you cannot say : one milk, two milk, three milk, ….

 

It is possible, however, to count some non-count nouns if the substance is placed in a countable container.

Glass of milk --- one glass of milk, two glass of milk, three glass of milk, …. 

 

Some determine can be used only with count or non-count nouns, while others can be used with either. Memorize the words in the following chart

 

With Count Nouns	With Non-Count Nouns
A(n), the, some, any This, that, these, those None, one, two, three Many  A lot of A (large / great) number of (a) few Fewer …. than More …. than	The, some, any This, that None Much ( usually in negatives or questions ) A lot of A large amount of (a) little Less …. than More …. than

 

It is very important to know if a noun is non-count. Be sure that you know the plurals of irregular count nouns. The following lis contains some irregular count nouns that you should know.

Person—people                  child---children                   tooht---teeth Foot—feet                            mouse---mice                     man---men Woman—women

 

The following list contains some non-count nouns that you should know.

Sand                      soap                           physic                      mathematics  News                    mumps                      air                            politics  Measles               information              meat                        homework  Food                     economics                advertising*           money

 

*NOTE : Although advertising is a non-count noun, advertising ent is  a count noun. if you wish to speak of one particular advertisement, you must use this world.

There are too many advertisements during television shows.

There is too much advertisingduring television shows.

 

Some non-count nouns, such as food, meat, money, and sand, may be used as count nouns in order to indicate different types.

This is one of the foods that my doctor has forbidden me to eat. 

(indicates a particular type of food)

 

He studies meats.

(for example, beef, pork, lamb, etc)

 

B.    A AND AN

A or an can precede only singular count nouns; they mean one. They can be used in a general statement or to introduce a subject which has not been previously mentioned. 

A baseball is round.                                                (general---means all baseball)

I saw a boy in the street.                                        (We don’t know which boy)

 

An is used before words that begin with a vowel sound. A is used before word that begin with a consonant sound.

A book                            An apple

Some words can be confusing because the spelling doesn’t indicate the pronunciation.

A house                                                (begins with a consonant sound)

An hour                                                (begins with a vowel sound)

A university                        (begins with a consonant sound)

An umbrella                        (begins with a vowel sound

The following words begin with a consonant sound and thus must always be preceded by a.

European            eulogy                  euphemism        eucalyptus House                   home                    heavy                    half Uniform               university            universal              union

 

 

 

 

The following words begin with a vowel sound and thus must always be preceded by an.

Hour                      heir                        herbal                   honor Uncel                    Umbrella             unnatural                understanding

 

 

 

The initial sound of the word that immediately follows the indefinite article will determine whether it sound be a or an.

An umbrella                        a white umbrella

An hour                                                a whole hour

 

C.     THE

The is ude to indicate something that we already know about or something that is common knowledge.

The boy in the corner is my friend.                           ( the speaker and the listener know which boy. )

The earth is round                                                           ( there is only one earth. )

 

With non-count nouns, one uses the article the if speaking in specific terms, but uses no article if speaking in general.

Sugar is sweet.                                                                  ( general---all sugar )

The sugar on the table is form Cuba.                       ( specific---the sugar that is on the table )

 

Normally, plural count nouns, when they mean everything within a certain class, are not preceded by the.

Oranges are green until they ripen.                                                         ( all oranges )

Athletes should followa well-balanced diet.                                         ( all athletes )

 

Normally a proper noun is not preceded by an article unless there are several people or things with the same name the speaker is specifying one of them.

There are three Susan Parkers in the telephone directory.

The Susan Parker that I know lives on First Avenue.

 

Normally words such as breakfast, lunch, dinner, school, church, home, college, and work don’t use any article unless to restrict the meaning.

We eat breakfast at eight o’clock this morning.

We went to school yesterday.

 

Use the following generalizations as a guide for the use of the article the.

use THE with

Don’t use THE with

Oceans, rivers, seas, gulfs, plural, lakes                 The Red Sea, The Atlantic Ocean                 The Persian Gulf                 The Great Lakes Mountains                 The Rocky Mountains                 The Andes Earth, moon                 The earth                  The moon Schools, colleges, universities when the prehase begin with school, etc.                 The University of Florida                 The College of Arts and Sciences Ordinal numbers before nouns.                 The First World War                 The third chapter Wars (except world wars)                 The Crimean War                 The Korean War Certain countries or groups of countries with more than one word (except Great Britain)                 The United State                 The United Kingdom                 The Central African Republic         Historical documents                 The Constitution                 The Magna Carta Ethnic groups                 The Indians, The Aztecs

Singular lakes                 Lake Geneva                 Lake Eric   Mounts                 Mount Vesuvius                 Mount McKinley Planets, constellations                 Venus, Mars, Earth, Orion   Schools, colleges, universities when the phrase begins with a proper noun                 Santa Fe Community College                 Cooper’s Art School Cardinal numbers after nouns                 World War One, Chapter three         Countries preceded by New or an adjective such as a direction                 New Zealand, South Africa Countries with only one word France, Sweden, Venezuela Continents                 European, Africa, South America States                 Florida, Ohio, California           Sports                 Baseball, Basketball Abstarct nouns                 Freedom, happiness General areas of subject matter  Mathematics, Sociology Holidays                 Christmas, Thanksgiving

 

Quiz Quoted Speech ‘n Reported Speech

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6) Mr. John said, "I'm not going to chicago" >> Direct Speech (Present continous tense)
    Answer :
    Mr. John said that, He wasn't going to chicago >> Indirect Speech (Past continous tense)


8) Jane said, "I can't afford to buy a new car" >> Direct Speech (Present tense)
     Answer :
     Jane said that, she couldn't afford to buy a new car >> Indirect Speech (Past tense)

Quoted Speech ‘n Reported Speech

Quoted Speech ‘n Reported Speech

We often have to give information about what people say or think. In order to do this you can use direct or quoted speech, or indirect or reported speech.

Quoted Speech / Direct Speech


Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech). Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.

For Example : 

Direct Speech
Adam said,”I’ve been working hard for seven years” 

or

"I've been working hard for seven years", Adam said.


Reported Speech / Indirect Speech



Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word.
When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too. 

For Example :

Direct Speech                                                                     Indirect Speech
Adam said,”I’ve been working hard for seven years” →  Adam said that he had been working hard for seven years.

 
Tense change

As a rule when you report something someone has said you go back a tense: (the tense on the left changes to the tense on the right):

Quoted Speech → Reported Speech

1) Present Simple → Past Simple

Adam said,”I work hard” → Adam said that he worked hard.

2) Present Continuous → Past Continuous

Adam said,”I am working hard” → Adam said that he was working hard.

3) Present Perfect → Past Perfect

Adam said,”I have worked hard” → Adam said that he had worked hard.

4) Present Perfect Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous

Adam said,”I’ve been working hard for seven years” → Adam said that he had been

working hard for seven years.

5) Past Simple → Past Perfect

Adam said,”I worked hard” → Adam said that he had worked hard.

6) Past Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous

Adam said,”I was working earlier” → Adam said that he had been working earlier.

7) Past Perfect Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous

Adam said,”I’d already been working for ten minutes”→ [NO CHANGE] Adam said that

he’d already been working for ten minutes.





Modal
Modal verb forms also sometimes change: 


Quoted Speech → Reported Speech

1) Will → Would

She said,”I‘ll teach English online tomorrow” → She said she would teach English online

tomorrow.

2) Can → Could

She said,”I can teach English online” → She said she could teach English online.

3) Must → Had to

She said,”I must have a dictionary to teach English online” → She said she had to have

a dictionary to teach English online tomorrow.

4) Shall → Should

She said,”What shall we learn today?” → She asked what we should learn today.

5) May → Might

She said,”May I open a new browser?” → She asked if she might open a new browser.
















NOTE : There is no change to; could, would, should, might and ought to.
 
Time change 

If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it to fit in with the time of reporting.
For example we need to change words like here and yesterday if they have different meanings at the time and place of reporting.

For example :

Now                                                                            + 24 hours - Indirect speech
                                                                         
                                                                              She said yesterday's lesson was on presentations.
                                                                              or
"Today's lesson is on presentations."                    She said yesterday's lesson would be on  
                                                                              presentations.

Expression of time if reported on a different day

Last...                  >   ...before
Today                  >   That day
Yesterday            >   The day before
Tommorow         >   The next day
Last week           >   The previous week
Next week          >    The following week
Two days ago     >    Two days before
A week ago        >    A week before
A mounth ago    >    A mounth before
These                 >    Those
This                    >    That
Over here           >    Over there
Here                   >    There
Now                   >    Then, at that moment

For example :

Direct Speech                                                             Indirect Speech
He said, "I am studying English now."     →     He said that he was studying English then.

In addition if you report something that someone said in a different place to where you heard it you must change the place (here) to the place (there).

For example : 

At work                                                                          At home
"How long have you worked here?"                          She asked me how long I'd worked there.


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TENSES

1. Present tense

    (+) S + V1 + O

    (-) S + do/does + not + V1 + O

    (?) Do/does + S + V1 + O

2. Past tense

    (+) S + V2 + O

    (-) S + did + not + V1 + O

    (?) Did + S + V1 + O

3. Present Progressive / continuous tense

    (+) S + to be (am, is, are) + Ving + O

    (-) S + to be (am, is , are) + not + Ving + O

    (?) To be (am, is, are) + S + Ving + O

4. Past Progressive / continuous tense

    (+) S + to be (was, were) + Ving + O

    (-) S + to be (was,were) + not + Ving + O

    (?) To be (was, were) + S + Ving + O

5. Past Perfect Tenses

    (+) S + had + V3 + O

    (-) S + had + not + V3 + O

    (?) Had + S + V3 + O

6. Present Perfect Tenses

    (+) S + Have / Has + V3 + O

    (-) S + Have / Has + not + V3 + O

    (?) Have / Has + S + V3 + O

7. Present Perfect Continuous Tenses

    (+) S + Have / Has + been + Ving + O

    (-) S + Have / Has + not + been + Ving + O

    (?) Have / Has + S + been + Ving + O

8. Future Tenses

    (+) S + will + V1 + O

    (-) S + will + not + V1 + O

    (?) Will + S + V1 + O

9. Future Continuous Tenses

    (+) S + will + be + Ving + O

    (-) S + will + not + be + Ving + O

    (?) Will + S + be + Ving + O

0. Simple future

    (+) S + to be (am, is, are) + going to + V1 + O

    (-) S + to be (am, is, are) + not + going to + V1 + O

    (?) To be (am, is, are) + S + going to + V1 + O

Application of tense

using the present perfect tense and future tenses

Market of heavy equipment in mining sector has declined sharply since year 2012. Coal price as main commodity in mining sector has not increased yet.  Many mining customers have postponed buying new heavy equipment machine. Heavy equipment industries are going to make new strategy for surviving.  They will try to reduce production cost by doing any improvements in manufacturing process. They also will create new innovation product to penetrate in new market.

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